96 
Gregory Forth 
Anthropos 91.1996 
basic level. As discussed elsewhere (Forth 1995), 
the modifier bholo (“only, alone”; “ordinary”) is 
sometimes used to specify common members of 
categories. Thus I recorded zawa bholo as a refer 
ence to the unmarked zawa contrasting with zawa 
ngongo. 
A possible exception to the binary composition 
of divided basic categories is ana peti, insofar as 
this term in its most limited sense can include 
three or four named kinds. Yet as should already 
be clear, in a wider sense (in which it can subsume 
up to a dozen named kinds) ana peti is better 
regarded as denoting an intermediate rather than a 
basic taxon. Also, if ana peti, in its most restricted 
application, is to be construed as a divided basic 
category, it nevertheless differs from bopo, o ae, 
and jata, since the term does not denote any par 
ticular included member of the class so named. 
As mentioned, the apparent prototype of ana peti, 
whatever its extension, is the taxon specified as 
ana peti jata. Although I once recorded ana peti 
bholo, or “common ana peti,” it remains unclear 
whether ana peti jata ever forms a contrast with 
ana peti understood as an unmarked and included 
term. Were it to do so, however, the latter could 
only denote a residual category including naka bo, 
bio, and perhaps other small passerine birds. 
Although four names include manu (otherwise 
the term for Domestic Fowl), this use of the term 
does not constitute an exception to the binary 
composition of divided generics since, as not 
ed earlier, in all instances manu is unproductive 
(cf. e.g., English nighthawk, titmouse, silverfish). 
What is more, none clearly denotes a distinct kind 
of empirical bird, and although just one name, 
manu ghebe, might do so, the entailed contrast 
with (unmarked) manu obviously provides a fur 
ther instance of the binary norm. As regards the 
nonempirical (and nonomithological) status of the 
remainder, manu ke’o is a fantastic creature de 
scribed as a large serpent or snake-like creature 
with the head of a cock, while manu miu is usually 
described not as a bird but rather a nocturnal sound 
produced by various birds but also by horses. 
Similarly, in the view of some Nage, manu mesi 
(“manu of the sea”) is simply a poetic expression 
denoting an inauspicious oddity or rarity. In re 
gard to the generally metaphoric and unproductive 
character of manu in these several expressions, it is 
relevant that only three informants included manu 
(= Domestic Fowl) in free recall lists, and two of 
these did so with reluctance or hesitation. As one 
man remarked, birds (Indonesian “burung”) should 
include only wild creatures and not domesticated 
kinds, such as chickens, which live inside villages. 
4. Intermediate Classes 
As demonstrated earlier, particularly in its most 
inclusive sense ana peti can be construed as de 
noting a category intermediate between “animal” 
(ana wa) or the covert “bird” and named basic 
kinds. Other evidence strongly suggests the pres 
ence in Nage cognition of several unnamed in 
termediate groupings of birds. Support for these 
derives mostly from free recall lists indicating a 
marked tendency to associate two or more named 
bird kinds in a way that results in a series of 
clusterings subsuming the majority of categories 
listed in Table 1. Some of these clusters correspond 
closely to scientific orders, while others are rather 
more culturally specific in character. 
From the free recall lists, it is possible to discern 
six groupings or clusters, each containing three or 
more named kinds. (For the moment, I leave the 
several named kinds of bats out of reckoning.) By 
“cluster” I refer to a series of names that were 
regularly given in succession, as for example in 
the case of one informant’s list which included - 
in this order - the terms for “eagles,” “Brahmi- 
ny Kite,” “large hawks,” “(one or more) smaller 
hawks” and “(larger) falcons.” In addition, there 
were four or five instances of pairs of names whose 
combination appeared to be not entirely fortuitous. 
The six larger groupings include diurnal raptors 
(or Falconiformes), Columbiformes (pigeons and 
doves, all of which in fact belong to the family 
Columbidae), quails, dark crow-like birds, water 
birds, and nocturnal birds. The named kinds in 
cluded within each of these clusters, together with 
details of other apparent intermediate groupings, 
are given in Table 2. 8 
Particularly as regards diurnal raptors and Co 
lumbiformes - or “hawks and pigeons” as one 
8 Additional support for the psychological reality of these 
clusters is found in the recall list provided by one of 
my better educated informants who, employing Bahasa 
Indonesia terms, explicitly grouped together six terminal 
Nage categories as “bangsa elang” (hawks), another five 
as “bangsa merpati” (doves, pigeons), and another three as 
“bangsa bangau” (herons). Also, two quails {piko, bewu) 
were listed with the Green Junglefowl (kata) as “ground 
dwelling birds”; two unspecified varieties of ducks were 
said to compose a “bangsa belibis” (wild duck group); 
while six other birds were linked as kinds named after 
their calls. Using only Nage phrases, another informant, 
entirely on his own initiative, provided a rather different 
series of intermediate groupings based mostly on nesting 
habits. These included birds that nest on or in the earth, 
birds that nest in holes in trees, birds that nest in treetops, 
and birds found close to the ground. The majority of kinds 
named by this informant, however, were not accommodated 
to this scheme.